Summer 2024 Issue

Double Marginalization
By Savannah B. Higgins, DSW, LMSW
Social Work Today
Vol. 24 No. 3 P. 14

Police Violence at the Intersection of Black and Autistic Identities

A pressing social justice issue that demands society’s attention is police violence against Black individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This article highlights the problem, provides historical context for the issue, reviews pertinent literature, analyzes past attempts to address the issue, and proposes solutions. The purpose is to promote systemic change and protect the rights and well-being of Black autistic individuals.

Overview of the Problem
There are numerous factors contributing to the issue of police violence against Black autistic individuals. Living in a society that does not value Black or disabled bodies makes living at the intersection of both identities extraordinarily complicated and dangerous. There’s already an increased risk of police violence against Black individuals in the United States, but when those individuals are also autistic, other risks are involved. The experiences and challenges faced by those living at the intersection of Black and autistic identities remain disregarded or overlooked, and Black autistic males are at an increased risk of police violence.1 The social and scholarly neglect of Black autistic individuals contributes to the lack of training in this area of interaction within police departments.

The Intersection of Black and Autistic Identities
Autism is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder that often comes with challenges related to social awareness and communication as well as behaviors that can be repetitive or restrictive.2 One in every 44 children in the United States has ASD,2 but Black children experience a three-year delay between the initial moment of concern and official diagnosis. 3 This reality complicates the lived experiences of Black autistic individuals, affecting their access to necessary resources and support.

In addition to late diagnosis and nominal access to resources, Black autistic individuals have insufficient access to culturally responsive services. The research concerning Black individuals on the spectrum is virtually nonexistent.4 Consequently, few service providers are educated on the best practices for working with this population.4 The barriers to service and lived experiences are not considered in service provision, even though those may be critical aspects contributing to how autism presents in their lives.4

Excessive Use of Force
Black Americans and Latinos are more than 50% more likely than whites to engage in an interaction with police that involves the use of force.5 Furthermore, significantly higher numbers of people are murdered by law enforcement in the United States compared with those in other Western countries.6 These statistics show just how critical it is to bring to light the importance of proper police training.

Autism Training
While racial bias training initiatives are on the rise, very little is being done to address the lack of knowledge and awareness of the many expressions of autism. Many behaviors expressed by autistic individuals during law enforcement encounters, such as difficulties with social communication and interaction, are easily misinterpreted by police as deception, noncompliance, and resistance.7 Communication challenges also complicate innocent autistic individuals’ ability to defend or persuade law enforcement of their virtue.8 Thus, training police departments and the general public on communication and behaviors associated with ASD is vital.

Historical Contexts
The issue of police violence against Black autistic individuals can be viewed primarily as a systemic issue. Racism and racial bias play key roles in these often violent interactions.9 The lack of accessible resources and services for Black individuals with autism also contributes to the problem.10 Moreover, the challenges that come with being Black in the United States are exacerbated by the trials that come while simultaneously sitting at the margin of disability.11,12

Racism in Policing
Racism is present in all areas of society and the systems involved in driving society to work as it does. While race has been used as a means of managing our social world, it’s critical to note that many of our structural institutions are influenced by the construct of race, namely law enforcement and the justice system.9 Policing, as both an institution and an occupation, was created for white people to track Black people, more specifically, enslaved Black people.9 In the initial stages of law enforcement, early policing methods encompassed slave patrols tasked with the responsibility of apprehending escaped enslaved Black individuals and returning them to their white captors.9 Following the abolition of slavery in the mid-1800s, a disturbing shift occurred, as white individuals leveraged policing and court systems to effectively re-enslave Black individuals. This involved the arrest of Black men by the police, subsequent convictions by the courts on various charges, and the utilization of these Black prisoners for unpaid labor.9 Over time, policing has developed and reinvented itself in ways that continue to sustain inequities among Black and white communities.9

Access to Resources
The systemic racism ingrained in our society also shapes the accessibility of resources and exposure to various forms of hardship.10 Access to services is distributed differently across races and ethnicities of children and families with autism. This reality has been shown to affect how autism presents, as resource disparities affect outcomes in early development. For example, economic insecurity in the form of struggling to pay for basic needs such as housing, food, and health care is connected to the externalizing and internalizing behaviors often seen in autistic children.10 Externalizing behaviors can present as impulsivity, noncompliance, and aggression, and internalizing behaviors may present as depression, anxiety, and social withdrawal.10 These behaviors are also shaped by other ecological, environmental factors and lived experiences, significantly affecting their interactions with others.

The Racial Bias of Police
Bias in policing is an issue that’s been widely discussed and researched, resulting in an array of justifications and explanations. Smith and Alpert express that recent empirical research confirms law enforcement officers treat members of certain minority demographics differently than they do whites in discretionary police encounters.13 Explanations for racial bias have included the individual implicit biases of officers, structural biases created by the prevailing social order, law enforcement proximate responses to high crime areas, and blatant racism.12 Police departments have become increasingly sensitized to racial profiling and racist attitudes by their officers, and this, sadly, does not wholly address the ongoing racial disparities in arrests, use of force, and fatalities.12

Marginalization of People With Disabilities
While race plays a prominent role in the experiences of Black individuals with autism, their perspective from the standpoint of disability cannot be discounted. Marginalization occurs at various social intersections and margins associated with historically silenced demographics. People with disabilities are often excluded from fully participating in society due to poor structural accommodations and support.11 Due to established societal norms, people with disabilities must fight to access services and are forced to resist exclusion and oppression daily.11

Brief Overview of the Literature
By exploring the literature on the issue of police violence and Black autism, several key themes emerged. Few articles explore specific experiences of Black autistic individuals in law enforcement encounters.7,14 Several articles examine the prevalence and consequences of law enforcement engagement with Black autistic individuals.15-18 Throughout the literature, the intersection of race and disability is thoroughly discussed, and the findings of each result in the necessity of awareness and social change.19,20

Police Encounters With Autism
Wallace et al examined the behaviors displayed by autistic individuals during encounters with law enforcement, and Hutson et al focused on the challenges of Black autistic individuals who encounter law enforcement. Findings conclude that many commonly autistic behaviors are on display during police encounters, leading to misinterpretation of behaviors and, ultimately, use of force.7,14 While people with autism can display behaviors interpreted by police and the general public as suspicious, Black racial identity heightens risks during police interactions.

Prevalence and Consequences
A significant amount of research highlights the prevalence and consequences of police encounters with people with autism.15-18 A study by Rava et al found that nearly 20% of autistic youth have been stopped and interrogated by a law enforcement officer before their early 20s.18 A common occurrence within the literature is the expression of negative experiences between police and autistic individuals that often lead to long-standing consequences, both personal and legal.15-18

Intersectionality
A few articles specifically explore and address the intersection of race and disability.19-21 It has been expressed that disabled individuals not only are often made to feel unwelcome, neglected, and incapable,19,20 but many also feel unworthy of life itself.21 Living at the intersection of disability and historically marginalized races and ethnicities creates unique experiences and instances of social exclusion.19,20 Considering the issues faced by those at this often-disregarded intersection may increase awareness of the perpetuation of social exclusion and the importance of promoting social change.

Attempts to Address the Issue
In recent years, there have been attempts to address the issue of police violence against Black autistic individuals, emphasizing the necessity for enhanced understanding and specialized approaches within law enforcement. Many police departments have implemented autism training programs with the intention of equipping officers with new knowledge and skills to effectively interact with people on the autism spectrum.22 Additionally, law enforcement agencies have worked toward implementing policies that highlight alternative methods to engaging with autistic individuals, prioritizing communication and de-escalation over the use of force.12,15 There has also been increased collaboration between officers and social workers, as many social workers are equipped with the expertise to understand the specific needs and challenges faced by autistic individuals.12

Law Enforcement Autism Training
Studies have indicated that introducing and enhancing autism training within police forces could improve interactions between autistic people and law enforcement officers; however, there’s a significant lack of adequate training tailored explicitly for ASD.17,22-24 This absence of autism training highlights the urgency for developing and implementing comprehensive training initiatives. These programs can bridge critical gaps in support and promote inclusivity within law enforcement practices.

Many police departments have benefitted from autism training. Within a number of these departments, officers have expressed increased knowledge and confidence in interacting with someone on the autism spectrum after such training.22 Furthermore, autism training can improve an officer’s ability to recognize signs of autism and more appropriately handle a potentially dangerous situation.24

Implementation of Policies
Cooper et al suggest that in addition to autism training initiatives, more robust policy protections should be implemented, as these could create more opportunities for meaningful participation that strengthen the connections between autistic individuals, law enforcement, and their communities.15 By establishing clear guidelines and protocols that address the specific needs of autistic individuals, police departments can prevent misunderstandings, minimize harm, and promote greater trust within the communities they serve.15 This makes it essential for autistic individuals to be included in the creation of such policies so that the guidelines reflect their lived experiences and perspectives, leading to more effective practices.

At the federal level, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) protects disabled individuals from discrimination. As stated by Shonebarger, most individuals with autism have a disability, according to the ADA, because ASD commonly substantially limits one or more activities of daily living.25 Considering the ADA’s legal protections and aligning law enforcement practices and procedures with its guidelines, police forces can more effectively engage in safer and more supportive interactions with autistic individuals.

Collaboration With Social Workers
There have been calls for shifting resources and support to mental health providers, such as social workers, to reduce law enforcement interactions that may lead to unnecessary or excessive force. These professionals bring a more sensitive approach to these interactions, as opposed to the armed and harsh responses that police officers are trained to employ.12 These social workers may be part of the police team or work for a particular organization within the community that partners with law enforcement departments.26

Limitations of These Attempts
There are several limitations to training programs, policies, and collaborative efforts. First, most police training remains focused on the proper use of firearms; use of force, including deadly force; self-defense; and legal education, without the prioritization of mental health awareness and de-escalation.12 The policies in place reflect this reality. Additionally, like many law enforcement officers, a plethora of social workers are also poorly trained and professionally incompetent with respect to these issues.12

Proposed Solutions
Hutson et al assert that implementing a community-led model involving partnerships between community organizations, law enforcement agencies, and mental health professionals can promote a collaborative approach to solving this issue.14 Furthermore, public awareness and education about the Black autistic experience can empower communities with the knowledge and confidence to advocate for this demographic.14 Finally, law enforcement departments should continue implementing and improving their training initiatives by incorporating cultural responsiveness and inclusive policy development. Police should also work toward ensuring accountability by prioritizing the leadership and involvement of Black and autistic individuals, focusing on their individual experiences and perspectives.

Networks of Support
Connections between organizations, individuals, and communities are crucial to fostering societal change. By recognizing the importance of establishing and maintaining relationships, we can better generate insight, support, and opportunities for all involved. Building these bridges of support can aid in working toward a more accepting and supportive environment for Black and autistic individuals, as well as those living at the intersection of both identities.

It’s imperative to support research, advocacy, and policy reform efforts aimed at addressing police violence and safeguarding the safety, dignity, and rights of Black autistic individuals. Addressing the intersecting issues of race, disability, and law enforcement can promote the cultivation of a society that values the lives of all its members. With sustained efforts and a commitment to inclusivity, we can work toward a future where everyone, regardless of their background or ability, can live without fear of violence and discrimination.

— Savannah Higgins, DSW, LMSW, is a licensed social worker in Georgia, South Carolina, and Maryland. She’s the academic director of Mosaic Academic Empowerment Center, an organization providing neurodiversity-affirming academic support. She’s also a part-time instructor in the Master of Social Work program at the University of Kentucky and a doctoral candidate in the University of Kentucky’s Doctor of Social Work program, where her research is focused on advancing social work education to better prepare students for culturally responsive service provision.

References
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2. Maenner MJ, Shaw KA, Bakian AV, et al. Prevalence and characteristics of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years—autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 sites, United States, 2018. MMWR Surveill Summ. 2021;70(11):1-16.

3. Constantino JN, Abbacchi AM, Saulnier C, et al. Timing of the diagnosis of autism in African American children. Pediatrics. 2020;146(3):e20193629.

4. Dababnah S, Kim I, Magaña S, Zhu Y. Parents taking action adapted to parents of Black autistic children: pilot results. J Policy Pract Intellect Disabil. 2023;20(1):18-32.

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17. Holloway C, Munro N, Cossburn K, Ropar D. A pilot study of co-produced autism training for police custody staff: evaluating the impact on perceived knowledge change and behaviour intentions. Policing: An International Journal. 2022;45(3):434-447.

18. Rava J, Shattuck P, Rast J, Roux A. The prevalence and correlates of involvement in the criminal justice system among youth on the autism spectrum. J Autism Dev Disord. 2017;47(2):340-346.

19. Banks J. Invisible man: examining the intersectionality of disability, race, and gender in an urban community. Disabil Society. 2018;33(6):894-908.

20. Frederick A, Shifrer D. Race and disability: from analogy to intersectionality. Sociol Race Ethn. 2019;5(2):200-214.

21. Saxton M. Hard bodies: exploring historical and cultural factors in disabled people's participation in exercise; applying critical disability theory. Sport Soc. 2018;21(1):22-39.

22. Gardner L, Campbell JM. Law enforcement officers' preparation for calls involving autism: Prior experiences and response to training. J Autism Dev Disord. 2020;50(12):4221-4229.

23. Hepworth D. A critical review of current police training and policy for autism spectrum disorder. J Intellect Disabil Offending Behav. 2017;8(4):212-222.

24. Love A, Usher EL, Toland MD, Railey KS, Campbell JM, Spriggs AD. Measuring police officer self-efficacy for working with individuals with autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. 2021;51(4):1331-1345.

25. Shonebarger R. Police training and autism spectrum disorder: providing a reasonable accommodation under the ADA. Ohio State Law Journal. 2019;80(2):351-378.

26. Chang S, Wilson A. Opinion: police should partner with social workers. The Detroit News. June 22, 2020. https://www.detroitnews.com/story/opinion/2020/06/23/opinion-police-should-partner-social-workers/3235618001/